The Tongzhi Restoration and the Self Strengthening Movement (1861-94)

Causes

Long term

Western imperialism
- HK became colony of Britain in 1842
- Opium wars, CN defeated by Britain/France in 1862
- Drug addicts, social instability
Internal rebellions
- Taiping Rebellion, 20 million people died (1850-64)
- Between Manchu rule and the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom (oppositional government)
- China tried to restore power (1861) by reforms from Emperor Tongzhi

Medium term

Militarisation

Sent students overseas (Yale) to purchase weapons
Weapons factory (arsenal), opened in Shanghai 1865
- Fuzhou, 1867 another arsenal (mechanical skills/navigation schools)
- Fuzhou, 1868, 11 warships
Training in Britain + Germany (naval/military)
Beiyang fleet 1871 founded

Westernisation/opening

Prince Gong – foreign relations/diplomacy
1861: Office for management of Foreign Countries to improve relations
1862: Interpreter’s school, Tongwen Guan, teach Chinese students French/English
1863: Imperial Maritime Customs Service – run by Sir Robert Hart, ⅓ income of CN gov’t by collecting trade taxes, with more power → negotiate more treaties e.g. Treaty of Nanjing
1867: Turned into full-fledged college teaching Western subjects (math/science/geology) led by WAP Martin
Missionary schools allowed, sent students abroad, translated Western books

Economic reforms

Education

Diplomacy

Zongli Yamen (foreign office)
- Burlingame mission = improve relations
- Chinese legations set up abroad (e.g. London 1877)
Contain Japan through Korean King
Opening country to the West, avoid JP domination
Success w. Russia, Treaty of St Petersburg (Ili, 1881) gave land back to China
However, war = France and CN in 1884, JP and CN in 1894
- Defeat
- Self-strengthening had failed

Lack of leadership

Didn’t understand nature, nor necessity
Cixi vs Prince Gong = poor planning
Tongzhi too young = dominated by Cixi
Ending of leadership
- 1869: Prince Gong removed from power
- 1872: Zeng Guofan dies
- 1875: Emperor Tongzhi dies
- 1876: Wenxiang dies
Left Cixi as political authority = conservative

Resistance of conservatives

Role of Cixi
- Limited reforms’ potential, removed Prince Gong in 1884
- Diverted funds from projects into her summer palace
- Had weak authority due to decentralized power
Corruption
- Diverted money
- No oversight = inefficient
- Unqualified officials, didn’t understand, resistant to modernisation
- Military did develop but it was done by provincial officials who had their provincial interests
Resistance of conservatives
- Confucian = resistant to West, didn’t want to undermine position
- Anti-Christian sentiment, west = barbaric
- Disrupt Fengshui
- Tianjin incident
- Anger = stopped missionary schools
- You cannot have economic and military reform without political reform.

Hostile imperialist powers

West + JP wanted to control CN (scramble for concessions!)
West dominated trade, domestic industry = no business
Sino French war (1884-85), Sino Japanese war (1894-95) = weakened China
- Decreased morale, believed that the reforms weren’t working
- China had a weak navy
- Heavy indemnity made it worse
Increased hostility after Tianjin massacre (1870)
- Rumours that the missionaries were abducting Chinese children to baptise
- The kidnappers were executed, Catholic cathedral smashed.
- Meeting between French and Chinese – French shot a magistrate. This lead to riots going out of control.
  - Cathedral burned, churches burned, 60 deaths
  - European gunboats and marines arrived to stop the riots, and angry Europeans demanded Beijing take responsibility
  - = Manchus could not establish order = protect themselves with a military presence.
  - Disappointed in the government’s failure to assert itself against foreigners, which lead to more tensions until the Boxer Uprising.