The impact of Japanese nationalism and militarism on foreign policy

Japanese nationalism and militarism

• Roots of militarism
  • Yamagata Aritomo – Imperial Rescript (1898), Meiji Constitution = only answerable to emperor
  • Victory = 1876 Opening of Korea, 1894-5 Sino-JP war, 1904-5 Russo JP war, (+ South Manchuria Railway Zone, 100k troops of Kwantung army)  Siberian Expedition 1918-22
  • Meiji restoration elevated status of Japan as an imperial power… it needed more resources for growing population
• Ultranationalist slogan = Enrich the Country, Strengthen Armed Forces
  • Secret societies in Meiji period echoed this
    • E.g. 1881 Black Ocean Society, 1901 Black Dragon Society
  • These turned into the National Foundation Society + National Alliance in Taisho Era
  • 1873 = Imperial Rescript for Military had to be memorized/recited = indoctrination for military + bushido spirit
  • Common theme of secret society
    • National Spirit = all agreed on it
    • Imperial rule, pan-Asianism, Emperor Worship
    • Many influenced by Kita Ikki – outline plan for the reorganisation of Japan (restore emperor, redistribute wealth)
    • Shumei Okawa – war against west
  • 1931 – two coups by Cherry Blossom Society and did not get punished
• Western treatment
  • Even though PPC Shandong, Seat at LON, problems w/ Racial Equality clause in 1924
  • 9 Power Treaty 1922, London Naval Conference (1930)
  • 10:10:6 – heavy cruisers, 10:10:7 – destroyers
  • Hamaguchi Yuko, responsible for signing London Naval Treaty (which angered military officers, who thought gov’t had no right to overstep into military affairs) → Yuko shot → resigned → died

Impact on Foreign Policy – Manchuria

• Military had no accountability to parliament
  • Act independently
    • Zhang Zuolin assassinated 1928
      • Failure to respond to internal AND external assassinations gave the military free reign over politics and no accountability
  • Jinan incident in 1928 – thousands of civilian casualties in China, 2000+ killed after a brief irritation from China
  • September 1931 = Kwantung Army – 100k troops in Japanese Railway Zone
    • Consisted of the Imperial Way faction
    • Gekokujo = disobedience to superioris if motivated by higher moral principles
      • Planned by Ishiwara/Doihara/Itagaki without knowledge of Kwantung Army Generals or HQ in Tokyo
    • Two explosions ⇒ by Dec 1931, all towns + cities in Manchuria
• Reijiro ordered staff to call of the invasion, Shidehara too, but failed
• Failure to end invasion + control Military = PM Reijiro was forced to resign and replaced by Inukai Tsuyoshi of Seiyukai ⇒ more hardline
  • Dec 1931 – Japan had renamed Manchukuo
    • PM Inukai Tsuyoshi failed to punish those responsible
  • May 1932 – attempted assassination against Tsuyoshi
• Saionji and military refused to allowed Seiyukai to form cabinet
  • Wave of assassinations made Admiral Saito Makoto a PM of national unity cabinet
  • Only 5/15 ministers from political party
  • Government had completely lost control – Tokyo was not consuled, Kwantung army acted upon its own will

Hostility towards foreign powers

• Feb 1932 – attempt of League of Blood (incident) to assassinate 13 leaders of liberals (only killed Inoue and Dan Takuma)
  • Viewed as patriotic (Nissho) during the trial
  • May 15, 1932: Inukai still refused to recognised Manchukuo, shot dead
    • Assassins pleaded loyalty to emperor
    • During court trial, 350k PEOPLE WROTE IN BLOOD to support them
    • New Admiral – Saito Makoto is Prime Minister ⇒ KT army operate without restraint, withdrew from LON and recognised Manchukuo
• Factionalism 
  • Imperial Way and Control Faction
  • Aug 1935 – Aizawa Incident – Imperial War Colonel murdered General of Control Faction with sword (Aizawa v Nagata)
    • People supported AIZAWA (murderer) ⇒ Imperial way got more support
  • Feb Coup 1936 – political tension in JP increased, military officers attempted coup to remove obstacles preventing union between emperor and people
  • Made division of the military
  • Imperial Way faction – remove zaibatsu, overthrow capitalism, assist countryside, military dictatorship
  • Control faction – future war against West, need zaibatsu + bureaucracy to built up armaments (military and naval power!)
    • 1935 – military officers had to demote IW officers → officer was slashed to death → control Faction had authority → IW more popular → navy called in to restore order after 26th February IW supporters protested
    • Now Control Faction in fully in control, assert authority, army ministers have right to appoint cabinet

• PM Hirota signed military budget to finance rearmament
• Anti-Comintern Pact with Germany