Invasion of Manchuria and China and its impact on relations with the West

Manchuria

Short term impacts

• US said that Tokyo couldn’t be held responsible since it was the Kwantung Army that acted without authorisation → so Jiang asked LON to defend sovereignty
• Stimson doctrine, Jan 1932 (USA)
  • Would not recognise Manchukuo
  • Would not accept changes to free trade
  • No longer itself bound by naval limitations (since JP had violated 9 Power Pact)
• International Commission of Enquiry. League of Nations gave Japan deadline (Nov 1931) to withdraw from territory ⇒ they didn’t withdraw
  • China asked League to impose sanctions ⇒ but couldn’t (great depr)
  • Lytton report condemned JP aggression in Oct 1932
    • Lytton commission to investigate Manchuria invasion: called for demilitarisation in Manchuria
      • March 1933: withdrew from LofN
      • UK and US refused to recognise Manchukuo –> Breakdown of relations w West, withdrew from naval arms limitations talks in Dec 1934, embarked on rearmament program
• Feb 1933 – confirmed Lytton report, JP withdraws from LON and occupies Jehol (Korea)
  • Japanese delegation led by ambassador Yōsuke Matsuoka.
  • On 27 March, Japan gave formal notice of its withdrawal of membership from the League.
• May 1933 – JP and China Tanggu truce, Jehol is officially Manchukuo as well, demilitarised Beijing ⇒ Japan is seen as expansionist
• UK – did not accept Stimson Doctrine by America, did NOT see JP occupation as a violation of 9 power pact
  • Japan had assured that there would be open door trade in Manchuria
  • Government waited for the Lytton report
  • Pursued policy of appeasement
    • Had imperial possessions in the Far East that made them wary of Japanese expansion = but they didn’t act on it

Long-term impacts on relations with the West

• Isolationism in the US
  • Roosevelt is limited in response to Japanese aggression by isolationists within Congress who passed a series of Neutrality Acts from 1935-7
  • Considered Japan to be an ambitious neighbour with interests that might potentially clash with their own
• Clash: In October 1935 the Okada cabinet approved Hirota’s Three Principles for presentation to China. They included the suppression of anti-Japanese activities and an end to the policy of dependence on Western powers;
• Germany:
  • Supported GMD, trained GMD troops and provided latest German weaponry
  • 1935, 60% of German arms exports went to China
• League had been slow to respond, but nevertheless Japan was punished for tis bad behaviour
• Japan’s rejection of the League’s instructions prompted the imposition of economic sanctions against Italy in 1935

Impact of the Invasion of China (August 1937)

Short term: America

• China found that it could not rely on other powers to assist in the struggle
• to repel the invaders. The Chinese government appealed to the League of Nations for support as soon as Japan commenced military operations, but the league responded with only a lukewarm condemnation of Japan.
• October 1937: Quarantine Speech delivered by President Roosevelt which signified a change in US foreign policy, warning of the dangers of ‘international anarchy and instability’, and calling for a quarantine of aggressor nations.
• The Panay incident
  • December 1937 – American patrol boat Panay is bombed by JP forces
  • Ladybird (UK) was also under fire in Yangtze ⇒ UK willing to send 9 ships if US would, US didn’t ⇒ WAR ALMOST breaks out
  • Japanese navy insisted that the attack had been unintentional. The Japanese government paid an indemnity of $2,214,007.36 to the US on 22 April 1938, officially settling the Panay incident
  • UK Didn’t do anything
• Brussels Conference of signatories of the Nine-Power Treaty. No action against Japan was decided, thus effectively ending the Washington System of international cooperation in China.
• However: 17 May​ ​- The US Naval Act of 1938 passed by Congress providing $1billion for naval rearmament to match the Axis powers by increasing the US navy by 20%.
  • Strained relations

Long term: The World

• December 1937 – Nanjing falls
  • Rape of Nanjing: killed/raped women, girls, extreme brutality
  • Feb 1938 – International Peace Campaign
    • Protested JP invasion, boycott of JP goods
      • Southampton – refused to unload cotton from Japan
      • Commonwealth Federation @ US = boycott JP goods going into Seattle
      • Oct 1937 = stockings of cotton instead of silk
  • Swung Western public opinion sharply against Japan. Fearing Japanese expansion,[28] the United States, United Kingdom, and France assisted China with its loans for war supply contracts.
• Counter-argument: July 1939, negotiations between Japanese Foreign Minister Arita Khatira and the British Ambassador in Tokyo, Robert Craigie, led to an agreement by which Great Britain recognized Japanese conquests in China

Long term: War

• 3 November 1938 – Prime Minister Konoe announces ‘New Order in East Asia’ political union between Japan, China and Manchukuo. As a statement of political and war aims, the New Order speech announced to the world Japan’s ambitions.
• 1 August 1940 – The Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere is formally announced by Foreign Minister Yosuke Matsuoka which called for a self-sufficient and Japanese dominated bloc of Asian nations. Building on earlier ideas of Pan-Asianism, in essence it was an imperialist propaganda concept designed to legitimise Japanese dominance in the region in clear opposition to the US Open Door concept.
• Roosevelt’s Quarantine Speech in Oct 1937 = more active US FP against JP
  • Konoe’s new order speech – Nov 1938 = increased tensions w/ Open Door Policy
• Naval Rearmament
  • US Naval act 1938 – 1bn funding for navy, ^ size 20%
  • 1940: Two-Ocean Navy Act – increased 8.5bn for funding (18 aircrafts, 7 battleships)
• Support for China and Allies
  • 1939: US Neutrality Act – enables US to sell weapons to allies
  • Embargo on aircraft parts and aviation oil in July 1938, US ended its 1911 Commercial Treaty with Japan in July 1939 and a new naval reconstruction programme in July 1940.

Three Party/Tripartite Pact (1940); US embargo (1940)

Tripartite pact

• 27 September 1940 – Germany and Italy
  • GM and Italy recognised Japan in Asia
  • JP recognised leadership of GM and IT
  • All agreed to support (military, economic, political if attacked by US/anyone)
  • Intentions…
    • JP – UK wouldn’t partner with US
    • GM – dissuade US from aiding Britain
• Caused US to…
  • Move fleet to Pearl Harbor
  • Sign lend-lease deal with Britain
  • End fuel + metal trade with Japan
  • Hull note – asks JP to leave TPP

US embargo

• Neutrality acts in 1935-1937:
  • 1935: 1st neutrality act – declare arms embargo to hostile nations and warn US citizens traveling on ships + refused trade with italy
  • 1936: 2nd neutrality act – refused loans to hostile nations (belligerent)
  • 1937: 3rd neutrality act – no travelling on belligerent ships + Cash and carry rule (they had to pay in cash for all purposes)
• After Panay, Sino-JP war,
• End of US isolationism
  • Naval Expansion act in may 1938 – 1bn + match capability of Axis
  • 1939: Neutrality act in November – sold American arms to Britain and France so USA wouldn’t have to go to war (repealed arms embargo of 1935)
  • 1940: France surrenders, can’t go without fighting
  • 1941: plans/guns/ammunition to britain → LEND LEASE PROGRAMME
• After what had happened with the ABCD block (Expansion of Japan into IndoChina)
  • US froze ALL JP assets = 1st AUG 1941 – Embargo on oil – tantamount to ‘act of war’
  • September 1941: Guidelines for the Implementing National Policy
    • JP ready for war
    • Negotiations by mid oct- fail – war

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